TABLE 1. The First Appearance Datum (FAD) and Last Appearance Datum (LAD) records of Stegodon species from China, Taiwan, Japan, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Southeast Asia.
| Species | FAD | LAD | Place | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stegodon orientalis | early Pleistocene (1.5 Ma) |
Holocene(?) | China Japan Vietnam Laos Thailand |
Lin, 1963; Konishi and Otsuka, 1984; An et al., 1990; Ma and Tang, 1992; Long et al., 1996; Saegusa, 1996; Yoshikawa, 1999; Tong and Patou-Mathis, 2003; Tong and Liu, 2004; Saegusa et al., 2005; Bacon et al., 2011; Duangkrayom, 2018; Chen, 2021 |
| S. zdanskyi | Pliocene | Unknown | China | Hu, 1962; Chen, 2021 |
| S. chiai | early Pleistocene | Unknown | China | Chen, 2021 |
| S. zhaotongensis | late Miocene | early Pliocene | China | Chen, 2021 |
| S. officinalis | Pliocene(?) | Unknown | China | Chen, 2021 |
| S. licenti | late Miocene | Pliocene | China | Chen, 2021 |
| S. huananensis | early Pleistocene (2.6 Ma to 1.8 Ma) |
Unknown | China | Sun et al., 2014; Chen, 2021 |
| S. wushanensis (?) | early Pleistocene | Unknown | China | Chen, 2021 |
| S. preorientalis | early Pleistocene | Unknown | China | Louys et al., 2007 |
| S. aurorae | late Pliocene (2.5 Ma) |
early Pleistocene (1.0 Ma) |
Japan Taiwan |
Shikama et al., 1975; Takashi et al., 2001 |
| S. miensis | late Pliocene | Unknown | Japan | Aiba et al., 2006 |
| S. sinensis | early Pleistocene | Unknown | China Taiwan Laos |
Arambourg and Fromaget, 1938; Otsuka, 1984; Chen, 2021 |
| S. elephantoides | early Pleistocene | Unknown | China Myanmar |
Clift,1828; Louys et al., 2007 |
| S. clifti | late Miocene | early Pliocene | India Pakistan |
Falconer and Cautley, 1847; Falconer, 1857 |
| S. khet-puralensis | Unknown | Unknown | India | Nanda, 1980 |
| S. kartiliensis | Unknown | Unknown | India | Nanda, 1980 |
| S. pinjorensis | Unknown | Unknown | India | Osborn, 1929 |
| S. insignis (Synonym: S. ganesa) | late Pliocene (2.48 Ma) | Unknown | Nepal India Myanmar |
Osborn, 1942; Sharma and Singh, 1966; West and Munthe, 1981; Corvinus, 1988; Nanda, 1988; Kundal et al., 2017 |
| S. bombifrons | late Miocene | Unknown | Nepal India Pakistan |
Falconer and Cautley, 1847; Corvinus, 1988; Zong, 1995; Aslam et al., 2015 |
| S. hypsilophus | middle Pleistocene | Unknown | Java | Hooijer, 1954; van den Bergh, 1999 |
| S. trigonocephalus | early Pleistocene (1.2 Ma) |
late Pleistocene (300 ka) |
Java | van den Bergh, 1999, 2001, 2008 |
| S. sompoensis | late Pliocene (2.5 Ma) |
early Pleistocene | Sulawesi | de Vos et al., 2007 |
| S. florensis | middle Pleistocene | late Pleistocene (460 ka) | Flores | van den Bergh, 1999, 2022 |
| S. sumbaensis | middle Pleistocene | late Pleistocene | Sumba | van der Geer et al., 2016 |
| S. timorensis | middle Pleistocene (710 ka) | late Pleistocene (130 ka) |
Timor | Louys et al., 2016; Jensen et al., 2017 |
| S. sondaari | early Pleistocene (1.4 Ma) |
middle Pleistocene (700 ka) |
Timor | van den Bergh, 2008, 2022 |
| S. cf. luzonensis | middle Pleistocene (727 ± 30 ka) |
Unknown | Luzon | Ingicco et al., 2018; Lambard et al., 2024 |
| S. mindanensis | Unknown | Unknown | Mindanao | Naumann, 1890 |
TABLE 2. Plate dimensions (in mm) of PRK_SC_P.01, S. trigonocephalus (CD 11649), and S. orientalis (KL DP3). TL: total length; MH: maximum height; LF: lamellar frequency; H/W: Height/Width Index
| Specimen | PRK_SC_P.01 | CD 11649 | KL DP3 | |
| Dimension | ||||
Width of each plate (mm) |
x (posterior) |
24.82 | - | 24.20 |
| 1st | 29.00 | 36.95 | 34.30 | |
| 2nd | 30.27 | 45.01 | 35.10 | |
| 3 rd | 28.72 | 40.47 | 32.50 | |
| 4 th | 27.62 | 36.86 | 29.00 | |
| 5 th | 24.74 | 32.49 | 28.60 (estimated) |
|
| 6th | 24.78 | 27.60 (estimated) | - | |
| x (anterior) |
16.97 | - | - | |
| TL (mm) | 51.70 | 59.05 | 62.70 | |
MH (mm) |
26.52 (taken at the 2nd plate from the posterior end) |
19.67 (taken at the 3rd plate from the posterior end) |
20.00 (taken at the 2nd plate from the posterior end) |
|
| LF | 11.61 | 10.16 | 7.97 | |
| H/W Index | 87.61 | 43.70 | 56.98 | |
TABLE 3. Uranium and Thorium isotopic compositions and 230Th age by MC-ICP-MS at NTU.
Analytical errors are 2σ of the mean.
a [238U] = [235U] x 137.77 (±0.11‰) (Hiess et al., 2012); δ234U = ([234U/238U] activity - 1) x 1000.
b δ234Uinitial corrected was calculated based on 230Th age (T), i.e., δ234Uinitial = δ234U measured x eλ234*T, and T is corrected age.
c [230Th/238U]activity = 1 - e- λ230T + (δ234Umeasured /1000)[λ 230 /(λ 230 - λ 234 )](1 - e- (λ230 - λ234) T ), where T is the age.
Decay constants are 9.1705 x 10-6 yr-1 for 230Th, 2.8221 x 10-6 yr -1 for 234U (Cheng et al., 2013), and 1.55125 x 10-10yr-1 for 238U (Jaffey et al., 1971).
d Age corrections, relative to chemistry date in January 2021, were calculated using an estimated atomic 230Th/232Th ratio of 4 (± 2) x 10-6.
TABLE 4. pIR-IRSL coarse grain dating of sediments at Stegodon Cave: dose rate data, equivalent doses, and age estimates.
| Sample code a | MAL-STEG | |
| Depth (m)b | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Gamma dose rate (Gy ka -1)c | 1.590 ± 0.196 | 1.590 ± 0.196 |
| Beta dose rate (Gy ka -1)c | 1.605 ± 0.051 | 1.518 ± 0.049 |
| Cosmic-ray dose rate (Gy ka -1)d | 0.085 ± 0.002 | 0.085 ± 0.002 |
| Internal dose rate (Gy ka -1)e | 0.72 ± 0.10 | 0.84 ± 0.20 |
| Water content (%) f | 2 / 2 ± 0.2 | 2 / 2 ± 0.2 |
| Total dose rate (Gy ka -1) | 4.00 ± 0.26 | 4.03 ± 0.32 |
| Accepted /Run aliquots g | 11/12 | 116/500 |
| Technique h | pIR-IRSL SA | pIR-IRSL SG |
| Equivalent dose (Gy) i,j | 932 ± 104 | 801 ± 94 |
| Age (ka) j | 233 ± 31 | 199 ± 28 |
a Samples processed using the 90-125 (SA) and 180-212 (SG) µm size fractions.
b Samples heights were measured against the upper flowstone at the site
c Beta dose rates were estimated using a Geiger Muller beta counting of dried and powdered sediment samples, gamma dose rates were estimated using an insitu gamma spectrometer and tested against thick source alpha counting measurements of dried and powdered sediment samples in the laboratory. The difference between the alpha and beta measurements was used to estimate potassium values.
d Time-averaged cosmic-ray dose rates (for dry samples), each assigned an uncertainty of ± 10%.
e Mean ± total (1σ) uncertainty, calculated as the quadratic sum of the random and systematic uncertainties.
f Field / time-averaged water contents, expressed as (mass of water/mass of dry sample) x 100. The latter values were used to correct the external gamma and beta dose rates.
g Total number of aliquots/grains processed verses number of accepted aliquots/grains- with an average acceptance rate of ~90%
h pIR-IRSLSA indicates coarse grain feldspars using 90-125 µm grains, pIR-IRSLSG indicates coarse grained feldspars using 180-212 µm grains
i Equivalent doses include a ± 2% systematic uncertainty associated with laboratory beta-source calibrations, and represents a fading corrected De. Fading corrections according to Lamothe et al. (2003)
j Uncertainties at 68% confidence interval.
TABLE 5. Summary of the characteristic differences between the dp3s of PRK_SC_P.01, S. orientalis (KL DP3), and S. trigonocephalus (CD 11649).
| No. | Characters | PRK_SC_P.01 | S. orientalis | S. trigonocephalus |
| 1. | Development of posterior cingulum | Moderately developed | Weakly developed | Developed |
| 2. | Presence of enamel tubercules at posterior cingulum | Present | Absent | Present |
| 3. | Tapering of each plate | High | Minimal | Moderate |
| 4. | Thickness of plate | Thin | Thick | Thick |
| 5. | Depth of valley between plates | Low | High | High |
