Appendix

Taxonomy of cuticle fragments

Podocarpaceae
cf. Dacrycarpus
Figure 5.1-5.6

Reference specimen and locality: SL5498, Kakahu-28.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL2589, Kakahu-29; SL5509, Kakahu-30; SL5511, Kakahu-30; SL2744, Kakahu-31; SL5521, Kakahu-33.

Description: Loosely imbricate, awl-like leaves up to about 2.5 mm long, 0.25- 0.50 mm in diameter, rounded in cross section, or perhaps also with some bilateral or bifacial flattening, often with a distinct frill of ctenoidally oriented cells along the junction of the adaxial and abaxial surface. Stomatal complexes in four stomatal zones, longitudinally oriented, paratetracytic, elongate. Epidermal cell walls elongate, smooth, straight-walled, unbuttressed, often with oblique end-walls, with periclinal walls often bulging slightly outwards, sometimes markedly so on the adaxial surface.

Notes: This conifer has characters which have been used to place some fossils in Dacrycarpus (e.g., Wells and Hill 1989) These include loosely imbricate, awl-like leaves, which have four zones of longitudinally oriented, elongate stomatal complexes, and unbuttressed epidermal cell walls. However, the absence of the distinctive tri-saccate pollen type from both Mt Somers and from Kakahu, despite the abundance of the macrofossils, strongly suggests those leaf morphological characters may be generalised and have probably be present in more than one genus. The bulging epidermal cells periclinal walls are not known from any certain Dacrycarpus. For now, the generic affinities of this Kakahu conifer are left open.

Kakahu Podocarp sp. A
Figure 5.7-5.8

Reference specimen and locality: SL5490, Kakahu-28.

Notes: A single fragment of podocarp cuticle is distinguished from cf. Dacrycarpus by its rounder stomatal complexes, in which the lateral subsidiary cells are more frequently divided in two.

Kakahu Podocarp sp. B
Figure 6.1-6.2

Reference specimen and locality: SL2756, Kakahu-28.

Notes: A single fragment of cuticle with typically Podocarpaceae stomatal morphology also contains the bases of persistent trichomes. However, the rounded and narrowly paratetracytic stomatal morphology is very distinct from Acmopyle, the only Cenozoic - Recent conifer currently known to have trichomes (Hill and Carpenter 1991). The fossil probably represents an undescribed genus.

Gnetalaceae Lindley 1834
CUT-Z-ADE
Figure 6.3-6.8

Local reference specimen and locality: SL2727, Kakahu-03.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL1089, Kakahu-28.

Notes: This cuticle taxon is widely distributed, being known from the Miocene of Central Otago (Pole 2008), and an extremely similar form from the Early Eocene of Tasmania (Pole 2007). Its distinctively rectangular-shaped guard cells suggest it is probably and extinct genus of the Gnetales. The pollen species Ephedrapites notensis, present in the Kakahu assemblages, is further evidence that the Gnetales were present in the vegetation. The pollen and cuticle type may have been produced by the same plants.

Monocots
CUT-Mo-FDD
Figure 7.3-7.4

Reference specimen and locality: SL2723, Kakahu-03.

Description: Stomatal complexes aligned to long axis of leaf, paratetracytic, scattered. Outer stomatal ledge prominent, narrow elliptical, pore narrow. Epidermal cells with straight-walls, not buttressed, with periclinal walls raised as broad, often compound papilla. Glabrous.

CUT-Mo-GED
Figure 7.7-7.8

Reference specimen and locality: SL5515, Kakahu-31.

Description: Stomatal complexes aligned to long axis of leaf, scattered, probably basically paratetracytic but modified by radial divisions to subsidiary cells and by tangential divisions to sometimes give two rings of narrow cells. Outer stomatal ledge prominent, blunt-ended, pore narrow. Epidermal cells with straight-walls, not buttressed, not papillate Glabrous.

Lauraceae
Leaves
Figure 8

Leaves are all fragmentary, but all narrowly lanceolate, microphyllous, about 5-10 mm wide and perhaps reaching 100 mm long, with an acute apex, acute base, and entire margin. The midrib is prominent and the lateral veins form several loops, and the finest venation forms a tight mesh.

CUT-L-FDJ
Figure 9

Reference specimen and locality: SL2788, Kakahu-09.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL2763, Kakahu-28; SL5507, Kakahu-30; SL5512, Kakahu-31.

Description: Stomatal distribution hypostomatic. Stomatal complexes in clear areoles between veins; isolated; randomly oriented; paracytic; outline irregular, typically with flat polar regions and curved sides; stomatal size range unimodal with a small range; shape and size highly irregular; not distinct in thickness from normal epidermal cells; unornamented. Guard cell overarched by subsidiary cells; cuticular scales narrow; very small. Epidermal cell flanges clearly visible using TLM. Normal epidermal cells isodiametric; cells over major veins have clear anticlinal walls, those over fine veins have indistinct walls; walls wavy; unbuttressed; with scars of trichome bases; unornamented. Trichomes common; scattered over venal and non-venal regions but slightly more common over veins; deciduous (and therefore trichome type unknown); inserted between epidermal cells; diameter much smaller than a normal epidermal cell. Epidermal cells around trichome base (5-6) modified only slightly to form a thickened poral rim. Non stomatal surface epidermal cells isodiametric; polygonal; cells over major veins distinguished. Trichomes present and sparse (same morphology as stomatal surface).

CUT-L-FCG
Figure 10.1-10.4

Reference specimen and locality: SL2757, Kakahu-03.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL2581, Kakahu-08; SL2722, Kq-A1; SL5536, Kakahu-09.

Description: Stomatal complexes evenly spread, isolated; randomly oriented; paracytic; outline typically broader than long; size range unimodal (but broad); cuticle thinner than over normal epidermal cells; unornamented. Guard cells overarched by subsidiary cells; cuticular scales narrow; very small. Epidermal cell flanges clearly visible using TLM. Normal epidermal cells isodiametric, cells over major veins distinguished as 'venal' (elongated), walls straight, unbuttressed (or possibly slightly buttressed); with scars of trichome bases; unornamented. Trichomes sparse; scattered over venal and non-venal regions but slightly more common over veins; deciduous (and therefore trichome type unknown); inserted between epidermal cells; diameter similar in size to a normal epidermal cell; cells around trichome base (4-5) modified with thickened poral rim.

CUT-L-CDG
Figure 9.3-9.4

Reference specimen and locality: SL4845, Cave-30 (Pole and Vajda 2009).

Local reference specimen and locality: SL2743, Kakahu-31.

Notes: A single cuticle fragment is identified as a morphology previously described from earliest Palaeocene sediments at Cave Stream (Pole and Vajda 2009). The cuticle has epidermal cells with single large, thick, slightly angular papillae, which are discrete, but almost as large as the epidermal cell outline. The stomata; complexes have distinctive thickenings.

CUT-L-FDB
Figure 9.5-9.6

Reference specimen and locality: SL2751, Kakahu-33.

Description: Stomatal complexes in clear areoles between veins; isolated; randomly oriented; paracytic; outline unclear, cuticle thinner than over normal epidermal cells (usually broken); unornamented. Guard cell overarched by subsidiary cells; cuticular scales narrow. Epidermal cell walls curved, unbuttressed; with scars of trichome bases; unornamented. Trichomes attachment scars common; scattered over venal and non-venal regions but slightly more common over veins.

CUT-L-FDG
Figure 10.5-10.8

Reference specimen and locality: SL2772, Kakahu-28.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL5537, Kakahu-09; SL5518, Kakahu-33.

Description: Stomatal complexes in clear areoles between veins; isolated; randomly oriented; paracytic; outline irregular, typically with flat polar regions and curved sides; stomatal size range unimodal with a small range; not distinct in thickness from normal epidermal cells; unornamented. Guard cell overarched by subsidiary cells; cuticular scales narrow; very small. Epidermal cell flanges clearly visible using TLM. Normal epidermal cells highly variable from isodiametric to elongate; cells over major veins distinguished as 'venal' (elongated); walls wavy; unbuttressed; with scars of trichome bases; unornamented. Trichomes common; scattered over venal and non-venal regions but slightly more common over veins; deciduous (and therefore trichome type unknown); inserted between epidermal cells; diameter much smaller than a normal epidermal cell. Epidermal cells around trichome base (5-8) modified with thickened poral rim and radial walls.

CUT-Z-FCF
Figure 11.1-11.4

Reference specimen and locality: SL2758, Kakahu-03.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL1085, J38/f58.

Description: Under TLM all cell outlines are obscured by ridged, peltate extensions of the epidermal cells. Stomatal complexes grouped into areoles, clearly distinguished as patches of thicker (darker-staining) cuticle. Normal stomata overarched almost completely by peltate extensions from about five surrounding cells, except for a few 'giant stomatal complexes'. No subsidiary cells are distinguished. Glabrous.

CUT-Z-GBI
Figure 11.5-11.6

Reference specimen and locality: SL4931, Kakahu-31.

Description: Stomatal complexes difficult to distinguish under TLM (cuticle very thin). Epidermal cell walls not clearly visible under TLM, but papillate with irregular, compound papillae. Glabrous.

CUT-Z-FCH
Figure 12.1-12.2

Reference specimen and locality: SL1114, Kakahu-33.

Description: Stomatal complexes evenly spread; isolated; randomly oriented; possibly anomocytic. Outer stomatal ledge very thin. Epidermal cell outlines wavy, buttressed, but often poorly distinct. Glabrous.

CUT-Z-FCI
Figure 12.3-12.4

Reference specimen and locality: SL2755, Kakahu-28.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL5505, Kakahu-29; SL5508, Kakahu-30.

Description: Stomatal complexes evenly spread, anticlinal walls not clear and no distinct subsidiary cells apparent. Outer stomatal ledges clear, prominent, continuous ring about half with of the guard cells. Epidermal cells papillate, papillae discrete and slightly flanged, apparently centred well within the outlines of the epidermal cell. Venal cells not distinguished. Strongly thickened trichome attachment scars common.

CUT-Z-GBG
Figure 12.5-12.6

Reference specimen and locality: SL4932, Kakahu-31.

Description: Adaxial cuticle only, stomatal complexes not known. Epidermal cells isodiametric, straight-walled, periclinal surface ornamented with flowing pattern of many fine, subdued ridges. Persistent trichomes common, simple, with multicelled bases.

CUT-Z-GEE
Figure 12.7-12.8

Reference specimen and locality: SL5519, Kakahu-33.

Description: Stomatal complexes very scattered, randomly oriented. Cyclocytic with two or three rings of tangentially oriented subsidiary cells. Outer stomatal ledge prominent. Epidermal cells isodiametric, distinctly smaller than the stomatal complexes, straight-walled, unbuttressed. Glabrous.

CUT-Z-FCE
Figure 13

Reference specimen and locality: SL1069, Kakahu-33.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL1128, Kakahu-28; SL5506, Kakahu-29.

Description: Stomatal complexes evenly spread; isolated; randomly oriented; possibly anomocytic. Not distinct in thickness from normal epidermal cells (but all cells within areole are much thinner than venal cells). Ornamented with prominent, discontinuous, distinctly cuspate ridges which appear to be centred over cell borders. Guard cell pair outline circular; periclinal walls same thickness as normal epidermal cells. Outer stomatal ledge a broad ridge covered about half the width of the guard cells, but notched at the polar ends. Epidermal cells unbuttressed; ornamented with discontinuous ridges, probably corresponding to walls of epidermal cells. Venal cells not distinguished. Glabrous.

Identification: The cuticle morphology shows a remarkable similarity to an extant species off Aquifoliaceae, Nemopanthus mucronata (L.) Trelease (1889) the American Mountain holly. On this basis the fossil is suggested to belong in the family.

CUT-Z-GBH Smoothly papillate cuticle
Figure 14.

Reference specimen and locality: SL2759, Kakahu-28.

Referred specimens and occurrence: SL5524, Kakahu-33.

Description: Adaxial cuticle only known. Epidermal cells isodiametric, rounded, raised into prominent, smooth papillae. Trichome attachment scars present surrounded by a ring of cells.

Charcoal types
Figure 15.

Two types are present; angiosperm, with scalariform pitting ad multiple (more than twenty bars), and podocarp, with mostly uniseriate, circular bordered pits.